A control apparatus and methods using context-dependent difference learning for controlling e.g., a plant. In one embodiment, the apparatus includes an actor module and a critic module. The actor module provides a control signal for the plant. The actor module is subject to adaptation, which is performed to optimize control strategy of the actor. The adaptation is based upon the reinforcement signal provided by the critic module. The reinforcement signal is calculated based on the comparison of a present control performance signal observed for a certain context signal, with a control performance signal observed for the same context in the past.