Implementations relate to determining a secondary language proficiency measure, for a user in a secondary language (i.e., a language other than a primary language specified for the user), where determining the secondary language proficiency measure is based on past interactions of the user that are related to the secondary language. Those implementations further relate to utilizing the determined secondary language proficiency measure to increase efficiency of user interaction(s), such as interaction(s) with a language learning application and/or an automated assistant. Some of those implementations utilize the secondary language proficiency measure in automatically setting value(s), biasing automatic speech recognition, and/or determining how to render natural language output.