A method of forming a layer, the method including providing a substrate having at least one surface adapted for deposition thereon; and directing a particle beam towards the surface of the substrate, the particle beam including moderately charged ions (MCIs), substantially all the MCIs independently have charges from ±2 to ±6 and kinetic energies of not greater than about 200 eV, wherein the MCIs do not penetrate more than about 30 Å into the surface of the substrate to form a layer on the substrate.